[18] His Polish allies in these endeavors included Lt. Col. Gwido Langer and Major Maksymilian Ciężki. Originally comprising French volunteers, these units were after 1871 mostly drawn from French settlers in Algeria ("pied-noirs") undertaking their military service. Crusade in Europe, pp. They learned to avoid ships carrying Greek fire. The French were former members of the Allies and the American troops were instructed not to fire unless they were fired upon. The conquest of Algeria by the French faced long and bitter opposition, led from 1832 to 1847 by the Algerian resistance leader Abd-el-Kader. While the French colonies formally aligned with Germany via Vichy France, the loyalties of the population were mixed.Reports indicated that they might support the Allies. Tribal warfare continued on the Algerian Desert. [42], The operation was America's first armed deployment in the Arab world since the Barbary Wars and, according to The Economist, laid the foundations for America's postwar Middle East policy. Boarders could expect incoming swivel gun fire, and grapeshot loaded in heavier guns if the boarded vessel had time to raise the alarm. For others no group has claimed responsibility. In the west, the forces of the First Army came under attack at the end of January, were forced back from the Faïd Pass and suffered a reversal at the Battle of Sidi Bou Zid on 14–15 February. Algeria was the center of French power in North Africa. Eisenhower told Patton that the past six weeks were the most trying of his life. Rear Admiral Sir Harold Burrough, RN[45] It quickly became clear that Giraud lacked the authority to take command of the French forces. [25]) In reality, the Eastern Task Force—aimed at Algiers—was commanded by Lieutenant-General Kenneth Anderson and consisted of a brigade from the British 78th and the U.S. 34th Infantry Divisions, along with two British commando units (No. During World War II, Algeria, along with North Africa, were under the control of Nazi Germany and Vichy France. General Dwight D. Eisenhower was given command of the operation, and he set up his headquarters in Gibraltar. The Punic Wars were a series of wars fought between Rome and the city-state of Carthage. Observers in North Africa mirrored this trend. Romans employed North African horsemen for this, and used them during fighting with raiding tribes, the Seleucid wars, and the Roman-Parthian Wars. Operation Torch was the Anglo-American invasion of French Morocco and Algeria during the North African Campaign of World War II. During the War, large numbers of both Muslim and European Algerians served with the French Army. By 10 November, the remaining defenders were pinned down, and the bulk of Harmon's forces raced to join the siege of Casablanca. [7] These forces included 60,000 troops in Morocco, 15,000 in Tunisia, and 50,000 in Algeria, with coastal artillery, and a small number of tanks and aircraft. Media in category "French Algeria in World War II" The following 11 files are in this category, out of 11 total. [27] Contrary to European stereotype, not all were Black Guards. German support for the Vichy French came in the shape of air support. Despite Operation Torch's role in the war and logistical success, it has been largely overlooked in many popular histories of the war and in general cultural influence. Most of the landings occurred behind schedule. Eventually, one man, one horse became the rule due to the maneuverability of a less encumbered horse and the added expense of building and maintaining a chariot. Darlan was assassinated soon after and the Free French gradually came to dominate the government. Under pressure from the Allies and de Gaulle's supporters, the French régime shifted, with Vichy officials gradually replaced and its more offensive decrees rescinded. The French Franc (Fr) was the currency used in France and its colonies until the Euro was adopted in 2002. The French troops withdrew to the west and, within a few days, began to skirmish against the Germans, encouraged by small American and British detachments who had reached the area. Dey Hussein was said to have hit the French Consul with a fly whisk three times in the face after the French Consul failed to answer the dey's questions regarding France's outstanding debt to Algeria. They sailed from the United Kingdom and were commanded by Major General Lloyd Fredendall, the naval forces being commanded by Commodore Thomas Troubridge. On the eve of World War II there were 400,000 Jews in French North Africa (Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia, sometimes called the “Maghreb”, meaning Arab North Africa), and another 30,000 Jews in Libya, then an Italian colony. Algerian riflemen made prisoners by the German army. He even ordered the arrest of the leaders of the Algiers coup of 8 November, with no opposition from Murphy. [2] While beaten in most direct clashes, notably after 1957, the poorly equipped and outnumbered internal forces were able to maintain an effective opposition to a French Army of nearly half a million troops, throughout an extended struggle that cost up to a million Algerian lives. The conflict lasted from 1991 to 2002 when the Islamic Salvation Army surrendered to the government but minor skirmishes still continue in parts of the country. 1960s, Algeria finally became an independent country and its decolonization would have long-lasting and irreversible effects for Algerians, for the Pieds-Noirs (French settlers living in Algeria), for Algerian migrants and their descendants who moved to, and now live in In November 1943, de Gaulle became head of the CFLN and de jure head of government of France and was recognized by the U.S. and Britain. The Organisation of African Unity eventually managed to arrange a formal cease-fire and a peace agreement was then made. [42] The Economist speculated that to be because French forces were the initial enemies of the landing, making for a difficult fit into the war's overall narrative in general histories. 6 Commandos), together with the RAF Regiment providing 5 squadrons of infantry and 5 Light anti-aircraft flights, totalling 20,000 troops. The Combined Chiefs of Staff, however, were concerned that should Operation Torch precipitate Spain to abandon neutrality and join the Axis, the Straits of Gibraltar could be closed cutting the entire Allied force's lines of communication. After the German and Italian occupation of Vichy France and their failed attempt to capture the French fleet at Toulon (Operation Lila), the French Armée d'Afrique sided with the Allies, providing a third corps (XIX Corps) for Anderson. This particular bill was issued by the Banque de L'Algérie, indicating that it originated in Algeria, which was a French colony until 1962. Director: Mark Robson | Stars: Anthony Quinn, Alain Delon, George Segal, Michèle Morgan Votes: 1,683 10. Some chariot designs enabled a team to stop, unhook the horses, leave the chariot behind in a chosen spot and mount the horses to fight as cavalry. The Allied Naval Commander of the Expeditionary Force was Admiral Sir Andrew Cunningham; his deputy was Vice-Admiral Sir Bertram Ramsay, who planned the amphibious landings. Vice Admiral H. Kent Hewitt, USN[43] The Center Task Force was split between three beaches, two west of Oran and one east. The Algerian Civil War was a bloody conflict between the Algerian government and various radical Islamic militias. Some delay and confusion, and damage to landing ships, was caused by the unexpected shallowness of water and sandbars; although periscope observations had been carried out, no reconnaissance parties had landed on the beaches to determine the local maritime conditions. As agreed at Cherchell, in the early hours of 8 November, the 400 mainly Jewish French Resistance fighters of the Géo Gras Group staged a coup in the city of Algiers. Camels, mules and other pack animals were used for logistics. The colonial and post-colonial dimensions of Algerian migration to France Jim House, University of Leeds. [6] It was the first mass involvement of US troops in the European–North African Theatre, and saw the first major airborne assault carried out by the United States. The U.S. 1st Ranger Battalion landed east of Oran and quickly captured the shore battery at Arzew. Gen. Henry Jules Jean Maurice Martin), This page was last edited on 7 March 2021, at 15:23. The Germans took the airfields there and brought in more troops. Wracked with indecision, Barré moved his troops into the hills and formed a defensive line from Teboursouk through Medjez el Bab and ordered that anyone trying to pass through the line would be shot. Naval engagements during this period saw new ships like the caravel, the galeass, the galleon, the frigate, and the ship of the line. His forces surrounded the villa of General Charles Noguès, the Vichy-loyal high commissioner. Elements of the First Army (Lieutenant-General Kenneth Anderson), came to within 40 mi (64 km) of Tunis before a counterattack at Djedeida thrust them back. A stout metal shield could help cover a man and his neighbor in line from musketfire at extreme range, but was so heavy that most men who could afford both chose a musket for its range and didn't bother with the bulk and weight of a shield. However, Tunis was much too close to the Axis airfields in Sicily and Sardinia for any hope of success. During the conflict a series of massacres took place. Since Britain was already diplomatically and financially committed to de Gaulle, it was clear that negotiations with the French Liberation Movement would have to be conducted by the Americans, and the invasion as well. The Algerian War of Independence was a series of uprisings and guerilla warfare by Algerian Nationalists against the French administration and army, the pied-noir community of European descent, and pro-French Muslim militias (Harkis). When the Algerian war for national liberation began, Vautier, a teen-aged veteran of the French Resistance, joined the maquis in Algeria. This Western Task Force consisted of the U.S. 3rd and 9th Infantry Divisions, and two battalions from the U.S. 2nd Armored Division — 35,000 troops in a convoy of over 100 ships. A total of 67 American troops were interned by Franco's forces until February 1943. They gradually spread cattle and the horse, although many tribes already had one or both. Axis forces pushed on to Sbeitla and then fought the Battle of Kasserine Pass on 19 February, where the US II Corps retreated in disarray until Allied reinforcements halted the Axis advance on 22 February. Aerial operations were split into two commands, with British aircraft under Air Marshal Sir William Welsh operating east of Cape Tenez in Algeria, and all American aircraft under Major General Jimmy Doolittle, who was under the direct command of Major General Patton, operating west of Cape Tenez. World War II On 3 July 1940, the British Royal Navy attacked the French Navy 's fleet at Mers El Kébir, killing more than 1,200 men. Giraud ended up taking over the post when Darlan was assassinated six weeks later.[40]. In addition to generating a widespread sense of fear, these massacres and the ensuing flight of population have resulted in serious depopulation in the worst-affected areas. In conducting their planning, Allied military strategists needed to consider the political situation on the ground in North Africa, which was complex, as well as external diplomatic political aspects. He favored the eastern option because of the advantages it gave to an early capture of Tunis and also because the Atlantic swells off Casablanca presented considerably greater risks to an amphibious landing there than would be encountered in the Mediterranean. Muskets also made helmets more or less pointless. The Algerian government sent squadrons of fighters and bombers along with an armored brigade. New York: Doubleday, 1948. the attack on the French Navy in harbour at Mers-el-Kébir, Learn how and when to remove this template message, 2nd Battalion, 509th Parachute Infantry Regiment, until disabled by the 16-inch calibre American naval gunfire, François Darlan § Darlan's deal in North Africa, OPÉRATION TORCH Les débarquements alliés en Afrique du Nord. 99–105, 107–10. Early in the North African campaign, American tankers battled the Vichy French. The French population in North Africa were divided into three groups:[14], American strategy in planning the attack had to take into account these complexities on the ground. A reduced Foreign Legion and one regiment each of Spahis, Tirailleurs and Chasseurs d'Afrique remain in the modern French Army. The Western Task Force encountered unexpected resistance and bad weather, but Casablanca, the principal French Atlantic naval base, was captured after a short siege. Pirates continued to operate in small oar-driven boats without fixed masts to give them away while coming up on shore or alongside larger vessels. Marshall and other U.S. generals advocated the invasion of northern Europe later that year, which the British rejected. However, Darlan in Algiers had such authority. The First and Eighth Armies attacked again in April. The military history of Algeria covers a vast time period and complex events. A cruiser, six destroyers, and six submarines were destroyed by American gunfire and aircraft. On 8 November 1942, the invasion commenced with landings on three beaches—two west of Algiers and one east. It was the well armed and trained external wing who made up the bulk of the new Armee Nationale Populaire (ANP) created in 1962. The deal was made on 10 November, and French resistance ceased almost at once. The Allies organised three amphibious task forces to simultaneously seize the key ports and airports in Morocco and Algeria, targeting Casablanca, Oran and Algiers. The migration of colonised Arab-Berbers from Algeria to mainland France was the earliest and the most extensive of all colonial migrations to Western Europe before the 1960s. Boarding parties swung on ropes to reach the target deck or rigging, or extended hook-ended planks to walk across, a boarding tactic in use since at least the time of the First Punic War. [33] Poor weather over Spain and the extreme range caused the formation to scatter and forced 30 of the 37 air transports to land in the dry salt lake to the west of the objective. After consolidating in Algeria, the Allies began the Tunisia Campaign. However, they harbored suspicions that the Vichy French Navy would bear a grudge over the actions of the British in June 1940 to prevent French ships being taken by the Germans; the attack on the French Navy in harbour at Mers-el-Kébir, near Oran, killed almost 1,300 French sailors. On July 3 a British naval force sank or damaged most of the French ships in order to keep them from falling into German hands. The Attack on Mers-el-Kébir (Battle of Mers-el-Kébir) on 3 July 1940, during the Second World War, was a British naval attack on French Navy ships at the naval base at Mers El Kébir, … The Legion was based in Algeria for 130 years, an experience which came to shape its character. [42], Major General George S. Patton, USA (CG, I Armored Corps, USA) Then, they could roll on back to the buried bundles of arrows, then keep shooting. Giraud supported that but also preferred to maintain the old Vichy administration in North Africa. However, once French coastal batteries opened fire, Allied warships returned fire. The Americans surrounded the port of Casablanca by 10 November, and the city surrendered an hour before the final assault was due to take place. The conquest was not technically completed until the early 1900s when the last Tuareg were conquered and the Sahara came under full French control. In addition, the coup attempt alerted Noguès to the impending Allied invasion, and he immediately bolstered French coastal defenses. The incomplete French battleship Jean Bart—which was docked and immobile—fired on the landing force with her one working gun turret until disabled by the 16-inch calibre American naval gunfire of USS Massachusetts, the first such heavy-calibre shells fired by the U.S. Navy anywhere in World War II. Armies invading the area later on often came from regions where chariotry had already been abandoned. The limited French troops in Tunisia did not resist German troops arriving by air; Admiral Esteva, the commander, obeyed orders to that effect from Vichy. The Allies believed that the Vichy French forces would not fight, partly because of information supplied by the American Consul Robert Daniel Murphy in Algiers. An attempt was made to land U.S. infantry at the harbour directly, in order to quickly prevent destruction of the port facilities and scuttling of ships. Alternatively, a good archer could stockpile bundles of pre-positioned quivers full of arrows under piles of sand, circle a small enemy formation, taunt them into pursuit if they were ill-disciplined, then shoot arrows while retreating. Two U.S. destroyers were damaged. With the assistance of air support from the carriers, the troops pushed ahead, and the objectives were captured. There have however been no further actual clashes. The First and Second Barbary Wars were a series of conflicts between the United States and the Barbary States in North Africa. Operation Torch (8 November 1942 – 13 May 1943) was an Allied invasion of French North Africa during the Second World War. Larger, more organized expeditions southward encountered indigenous west African cultures, formed new trade links, drew maps which circulated farther north, and wrote down observations. In the early morning, the local Gendarmerie arrived and released Juin and Darlan. A few are noted to have accepted Islam, much like Jan Janzsoon, though not often so well-known. A chariot provided a stable platform so that with a separate driver, an archer did not have to be as specially trained as nomadic horse archers often were, and had room for more spare quivers to hang off the rim of the basket. Major General Mark W. Clark—one of Eisenhower's senior commanders—was dispatched to Cherchell in Algeria aboard the British submarine HMS Seraph and met with these Vichy French officers on 21 October 1942. Torch was a compromise operation that met the British objective of securing victory in North Africa while allowing American armed forces the opportunity to engage in the fight against Nazi Germany on a limited scale. [15], Marshall's opposition to Torch delayed the landings by almost a month, and his opposition to landings in Algeria led British military leaders to question his strategic ability; the Royal Navy controlled the Strait of Gibraltar, and Spain was unlikely to intervene as Franco was hedging his bets. [5] While the French colonies formally aligned with Germany via Vichy France, the loyalties of the population were mixed. [citation needed]. During the landing phase, ground forces were to be commanded by U.S. Major General Charles W. Ryder, Commanding General (CG) of the 34th Division and naval forces were commanded by Royal Navy Vice-Admiral Sir Harold Burrough. Algeria sent a battalion of infantry and a squadron of MiG-21s to Egypt during the 1967 Six-Day War with Israel. "The Stamford Historical Society Presents: Operation Torch and the Invasion of North Africa", "Frederick Thornton Peters - the Canadian Virtual War Memorial - Veterans Affairs Canada", "Operation Torch and the Birth of American Middle East Policy, 75 Years On", Washington Institute for Near East Policy, "Remembering Operation Torch on its 75th anniversary", United States Army Center of Military History, "Chapter 7: The Decision to Invade North Africa (Torch)", The Decision to Invade North Africa (TORCH), US Army Campaigns of World War II Series/Algeria-French Morocco, History and photos of the operations of the USS Ranger and its Air Group during Operation Torch, (North African Jewish Resistance to Nazis and the Holocaust), The accord Franco-Américan of Messelmoun (in French), Report of the Commander-in-Chief Allied Forces to the Combined Chief of Staff on Operations in North Africa, Operation Torch: Allied Invasion of North Africa, Operation TORCH Motion Pictures from the National Archives, Provisional Government of the French Republic, Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany, Rape during the Soviet occupation of Poland, Commander, Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force, Military Governor, U.S. Loyal pro-Vichy French – there were those who remained loyal to Marshal Petain and believed collaboration with the Axis powers was the best method of ensuring the future of France. "A Savage War of Peace - Algeria 1954-1962": Alastair Horne; This page was last edited on 19 May 2020, at 07:44. The planners assumed that if the leaders were given Allied military support they would take steps to liberate themselves, and the U.S. embarked on detailed negotiations under American Consul General Robert Murphy in Rabat with the French Liberation Movement. While they surrounded his house (making Juin a hostage) Murphy attempted to persuade him to side with the Allies. The Eighth Army (Lieutenant-General Bernard Montgomery) advancing from the east, stopped around Tripoli while the port was repaired to disembark reinforcements and build up the Allied advantage. French Army Colonel Raspeguy leads his paratroopers in battle against the Communist Viet Minh in Indochina and against Algerian guerrilla during the Algerian War. By the time of Ottoman Dynasty rule, black powder weapons had already become a common feature of warfare around the Mediterranean. General Henri Giraud, recently escaped from Germany, later became its leader. Most conscripts however were employed on non-military duties after doing their basic training. That deeply offended Charles de Gaulle, the head of Free France. The French Government had promoted French colonization and there was a substantial French population in Algeria. (Bonnier de La Chapelle was arrested on the spot and executed two days later.). At issue was the pirates' demand of tribute from American vessels in the Mediterranean. European powers built star forts to better withstand cannonfire. Following the end of the Algerian War (1962) most of France's North African units were disbanded. Hard fighting followed but the Allies cut off the Germans and Italians from support by naval and air forces between Tunisia and Sicily. Tafraoui and La Sénia were eventually captured but the role played by the airborne forces in Operation Torch was minimal.[33][35]. Some came from Sub-Saharan Africa, while others came from Europe. The French North African government gradually became active in the Allied war effort. The French Army recruited extensively from the Berber and Arab peoples of Algeria throughout the period of French rule (1830–1962). Horses, but few chariots which were largely obsolete, gave scouts, raiders, and rare armored riders an advantage in speed, momentum behind each forward blow during a charge, and height to reach over the shields of opposing infantry. Approx. The Armee de Liberation Nationale (ALN was created shortly after the Algerian rising began in 1954. [10][11] After Prime Minister Winston Churchill pressed for a landing in French North Africa in 1942, Marshall suggested instead to President Franklin D. Roosevelt that the U.S. abandon the Germany first strategy and take the offensive in the Pacific. Additional air support was provided by the carrier USS Ranger, whose squadrons intercepted Vichy aircraft and bombed hostile ships. [9] While that was of minimal military effect, it committed the French to the Allied side. Juin insisted on contacting Darlan and Murphy was unable to persuade either to side with the Allies. The Allies planned an Anglo-American invasion of French North Africa/Maghreb—Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia, territory nominally in the hands of the Vichy French government. [citation needed], Political events on the ground contributed to, and in some cases were even primary over, military aspects. Successor states did the same against raids, and the more ambitious chased raiding parties all the way back to their hideouts. Several Luftwaffe bomber wings undertook anti-shipping strikes against Allied ports in Algiers and along the North African coast. On 6 May, as the culmination of Operation Vulcan, the British took Tunis and American forces reached Bizerte. Algerian troops particularly distinguished themselves as part of the French Expeditionary Corps under General Juin, during the Italian campaign of 1943 and the Allied invasion of southern France in 1944.[1]. This proved to be a costly error as French defenses took a toll on American landing forces. The hot climate and the centuries of upheaval during and after the collapse of western Roman central authority meant the shortest-lived successor states did not have an opportunity to develop heavy cavalry along the lines of Byzantine cataphracts. In addition to indigenous troops, the French Army raised regiments of Zouaves and Chasseurs d' Afrique for service in Algeria. While the troops did not see active service, reportedly six MiGs were lost.[4]. Because of divided loyalties among the groups on the ground their support was uncertain, and due to the need to maintain secrecy, detailed plans could not be shared with the French.[14]. Juin was treated to a surprise: Admiral François Darlan—the commander of all French forces—was also in Algiers on a private visit. Two others landed in French Morocco and three in Spanish Morocco, where another Dakota dropped its paratroopers by mistake. By the time the 3rd Battalion, 67th Armored Regiment arrived, French snipers had pinned the assault troops (most of whom were in combat for the first time) on Safi's beaches. By 13 May, the Axis forces in Tunisia had surrendered, opening the way for the Allied invasion of Sicily in July. [38] Men from French North Africa would see much combat under the Allied banner as part of the French Expeditionary Corps (consisting of 112,000 troops in April 1944) in the Italian campaign, where Maghrebis (mostly Moroccans) made up over 60% of the unit's soldiers. Eisenhower, Dwight. The Center Task Force suffered some damage to its ships when trying to land in shallow water but the French ships were sunk or driven off; Oran surrendered after bombardment by British battleships. [25] (Fleet Air Arm aircraft did carry US "star" roundels during the operation,[26] and two British destroyers flew the Stars and Stripes. While Tunisia and Egypt had been areas of great interest to European powers during the long period of France’s Algerian takeover, the penetration of these countries had been informal, confined to… Island bases and coastal forts retained strategic significance and fighting and military planning reflected this reality. Port cities were often guarded by a fort at each end, with wall-shielded docks ready for defending forces' fighters to board their ships and sally (military) forth, or to provide cover if enemy fire became too heavily concentrated. Heavy artillery fire prevented one destroyer from landing but the other was able to disembark 250 Rangers before it too was driven back to sea. With these developments, Vichy North Africa became a unique site of World War II where colonialism and fascism co … Ideally there would also be a landing at Tunis to secure Tunisia and facilitate the rapid interdiction of supplies traveling via Tripoli to Rommel's forces in Libya. Giraud succeeded Darlan but, like him, replaced few of the Vichy officials. Helmet wearing varied considerably, and many men who could afford a good helmet still did not wear one, a turban providing sufficient protection against one or two swordblows that might get past their guard, as well as shade from the sun, while being cooler especially if watered down and with more free airflow than steel permits. A few ships occasionally went east to fight in wars against the Byzantine Empire. The United States paid taxes and rights fees to access the Mediterranean sea until the end of the Second Barbary War. Ribbed planks or rope ladders offered a way up the sides of much steeper ships. If they had infantry along, the infantrymen could lock the wheels of multiple chariots thus freed as barricades, though this risked damage to the chariot itself. I sommergibili dell'Asse e l'Operazione Torch. No role was provided for Free France, which was supposed to be France's government-in-exile and had taken charge in other French colonies. The American press protested, immediately dubbing it the "Darlan Deal", pointing out that Roosevelt had made a brazen bargain with Hitler's puppets in France. …French Army busy in the Algerian interior for another 50 years before all Algeria was under full French rule. 1 and No. With help from the Resistance, the Allies also succeeded in slipping French General Henri Giraud out of Vichy France on HMS Seraph—passing itself off as an American submarine[21]—to Gibraltar, where Eisenhower had his headquarters, intending to offer him the post of commander in chief of French forces in North Africa after the invasion. They were transported directly from the United States in the first of a new series of UG convoys providing logistic support for the North African campaign.[24]. Of all the French colonies, Algeria represented the largest supplier of material resources and manpower for France along with West Africa. Dynasty fought dynasty. The 2nd Battalion, 509th Parachute Infantry Regiment, aboard 39 C-47 Dakotas, flew all the way from Cornwall in England, over Spain, to drop near Oran and capture airfields at Tafraoui and La Sénia, respectively 15 miles (24 km) and 5 miles (8 km) south of Oran.
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